

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
The vocal tract
المؤلف:
David Hornsby
المصدر:
Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة:
65-4
2023-12-12
1349
The vocal tract
Speech sounds are produced by the organs of the vocal tract, which modify the airstream from the lungs. In the larynx or ‘voice box’, situated at the top of the windpipe, are the vocal cords, the gap between which is called the glottis. When these cords are kept close enough together and made to vibrate as air passes through the glottis, the sound produced is voiced; where there is no vibration the sound is voiceless. All vowels in English are voiced; consonants may be voiceless or voiced.
Speech sounds may also be oral or nasal, depending on whether or not the velum (or soft palate) is lowered to allow air to pass through the nose as well as the mouth. English has only oral vowels, but nasal and oral consonants; French, Portuguese and Polish have nasal vowels as well as nasal consonants. Consonants are produced by full or partial obstruction of the airstream, while vowels are produced by positioning the tongue in different configurations which do not impede the flow of air. The distinction, however, is not a clear-cut one and some sounds classified as consonants have vowel-like qualities.
You might find it helpful to think in terms of a continuum or sonority hierarchy with highly vocalic or ‘vowel-like’ sounds like [a] (as in British English rat) at the top and strongly consonantal sounds like [p] in pip at the bottom. Stressed syllables in English must have a vowel as their head or nucleus, while Slovak, for example, allows sounds further down the sonority hierarchy, such as [r] in the place name Brno, to occupy this position.
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