

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
HEARING
المؤلف:
John Field
المصدر:
Psycholinguistics
الجزء والصفحة:
P125
2025-08-27
478
HEARING
The sensation of sound reaching the ear, and the process of converting it into neural impulses which can be analysed into the component features of speech.
Sound waves are first processed by the peripheral auditory system. After reaching the pinna (the visible part of the ear), they are channelled into the ear canal, which acts as a resonator, amplifying the waves which pass along it. It can provide resonance for a range of frequencies from 500 Hz to 4000 Hz, but is especially sensitive to those between 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz. It is thus well fitted for transmitting the most important information in a speech signal.
The sound reaches the eardrum, and sets in vibration three small bones behind it known as the ossicles. This has the effect of producing a focus of acoustic energy which is much greater than that at the ear drum. The sound waves pass into the inner ear as variations in pressure, and produce movement along the basilar membrane. This in turn causes movement in a set of highly sensitive hair cells which rest on the membrane; and the movement is converted into neural impulses by the auditory nerve. The nerve consists of a bank of around 28,000 receptor neurons, each finely tuned to a particular frequency.
The brain then decodes the impulses. However, it is not easy for researchers to determine which pieces of the encoded information actually contribute to the identification of a particular speech sound.
See also: Deafness
Further reading: Ball and Rahilly (1999: Chaps 10–11)
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