

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
STUTTERING
المؤلف:
John Field
المصدر:
Psycholinguistics
الجزء والصفحة:
P291
2025-10-16
327
STUTTERING
A disorder of fluency. It varies considerably between sufferers but presents characteristics which give a sense of strain in the speaker. Symptoms include the repetition of phonemic segments, syllables or words (c-c-computer, com-com-computer, got a-got a-got a brother) and/or an extreme lengthening of segments or syllables (af:::raid). The most typical symptom is a blocking of the airflow, which results in long pauses, effortful speech and distorted facial expressions. There may be a greater than normal use of fillers such as erm or oh to cover, or sometimes anticipate, a gap. The general hesitancy of speech often leads to irregularities of rhythm and intonation and words may be stressed erratically or left incomplete. Sufferers are often aware of their limitations and may circumlocute or use general terms to avoid words that they anticipate will be difficult.
Stuttering thus involves more than difficulty in articulating particular words: there may also be disruption at the stages of phonetic and prosodic planning. The phenomenon has been interpreted in terms of demands and capacities: the demands made by speech upon the speaker’s attentional, linguistic or motor resources exceed what the speaker is capable of.
A cognitive theory would link stuttering to listening and to self-monitoring. It suggests that there may be split-second delays in the auditory feedback mechanism linking ear, brain and vocal organs, which disrupt the encoding of speech. There have also been neurological explanations, which suggest that a particular type of brain configuration may be the cause or that chemicals within the brain may disrupt the transmission of information across synapses.
See also: Cluttering
Further reading: Crystal and Varley (1999); Dalton and Hardcastle (1989); Wingate (1988)
الاكثر قراءة في Linguistics fields
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