SCHEMATHEORY

A schema (plural: schemas or schemata) is a complex knowledge structure which groups all that an individual knows about or associates with a particular concept. The term, much used in discussion of comprehension theory, was introduced by Bartlett (1932) and extended by many commentators since.

 As an example, an adult in Western society has a schema for RESTAURANT which entails: waiters/waitresses– a meal (not a snack)– a meal eaten on the premises– a main course with optional first course and dessert– menus– a bill– a chef (unseen)– cutlery glasses– napkins etc. This begins as episodic knowledge based on individual experiences of restaurants, but turns into semantic knowledge as the individual’s experience of restaurants grows.

When a reader encounters the word RESTAURANT, they access this schematic knowledge. It enables them to build a richer context than a writer provides; indeed, the writer can assume that the schema is shared with the reader, and is thus spared the need to go into excessive detail. Schematic knowledge also enables the reader to anticipate events and ideas which might occur later in the text and to relate incidents in the text to what happens in normal life.

Schemas which supply background knowledge to the interpretation of a text are sometimes referred to as content schemas. The reader’s ability to draw upon one may depend upon having a clearly established context for the text in question. A well-known experimental passage described how to use a washing machine but the schema could not be accessed without the assistance of an explanatory title.

Studies of reading and listening sometimes refer to formal schemas, which reflect previous experience of a text type or genre. Thus, in reading a scientific paper, we expect it to contain an abstract, a review of the literature, a presentation and analysis of data etc. This type of schema also provides expectations about style and register.

As well as referring to long-term knowledge structures, the term ‘schema’ is sometimes used more specifically to refer to the meaning representation that a reader or listener builds up while processing a particular piece of discourse. We approach a text with certain expectations about what it will say, which we derive from the title or from the purpose of the text; these enable us to develop a text-specific schema even before we read. As we read, we revise and add to the initial schema.

Schemas vary from one language user to another, and can be modified ad hoc to deal with a current situation. There are said to be three ways in which they can be changed. Tuning involves small adjustments made temporarily in order to confront immediate needs. Accretion modifies a schema gradually but permanently as new information is acquired or as repeated examples of contrary evidence accumulate. Thus, a child might have to adjust its category of DUCK to exclude birds that it has come to recognise as belonging to the category SWAN. Restructuring occurs when a sudden insight or new piece of knowledge leads to a radical reorganisation of existing knowledge structures.

 Associated with schema theory are two other types of stored knowledge. A frame (Minsky, 1977) is a schema with optional slots. The frame for SHIP provides us with the information ‘large– means of transport– floats on sea– manned by sailors’. We then use information from the text we are reading in order to fill empty slots relating to purpose (warship vs ferry vs merchant ship), power (diesel vs steam vs sail), colour, destination etc. If the information is not provided, we fill the slots with default values. In the absence of further information, our slots for SHIP would probably be filled out with passengers, a funnel and a dark colour rather than guns, sails or bright red.

A script (Schank and Abelson, 1977) is a sequence of activities associated with a stereotypical situation. A RESTAURANT script entails a particular ritual (W = waiter, C =customer): W greets C– C asks if there is a table– W shows C to the table– W presents menu W asks what C wants to drink– C orders first two courses of meal. Scripts provide a framework for many everyday events, and permit speakers and writers to adopt a kind of shorthand. If we read Helen ate in a restaurant, we can supply for ourselves the details of what happened without having to have them spelt out.

 See also: Listening: higher-level processes, Reading: higher-level processes

Further reading: Greene (1986: Part 1)

اخر الاخبار

اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة

المجمع العلمي للقرآن الكريم يصدر الكتاب الثاني من سلسلة يخشى

قسم الشعائر يكرّم أصحاب المواكب المشاركة في إحياء ذكرى شهادة السيدة الزهراء (عليها السلام)

جامعة العميد تستقبل طلبة المراحل الأولى المقبولين ضمن كلياتها للعام الدراسي الجديد

سماحة السيد الصافي يكرّم طلبة حفظ القرآن الكريم المتفوّقين ويؤكّد دور التدبّر في الهداية والتكامل

المزيد

الآخبار الصحية

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أيهما أفضل لصحتك.. زبدة الفول السوداني أم النوتيلا؟

المزيد

الآخبار التكنلوجية

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كشف مذهل في قاع "برمودا" !

المزيد

مواضيع ذات صلة

Problems with the dictionary view

The dictionary view

Dictionaries versus encyclopaedias

The encyclopaedic view of meaning

Embodiment and conceptual structure summary

Schematic systems

Semantic structure

Conceptual structure

Image schemas and abstract thought

Properties of image schemas

What is an image schema?

Image schemas