The fructosamine molecules are formed via glucose inside blood stream, by its group of carbonyl that reacts and binds to residues of protein amino debris which leads to form “Schiff’s Base”, and they are also a kind of “Macromolecules – Alkone – Amines – Compounds”; MAAC; which have about (1-3) weeks of life span. (Lasso et al, 2022).

     Importance of glycation process which occurs to excess of diabetic subjects. It has an adverse effect on several major organs and is at least partially responsible towards some of the major long-term complications in diabetes. Many of its effects are mediated by its consequences on the microvasculature. (Lee et al, 2019).

       Monitoring DM patients is one of most hard jobs that may can cause many problems with them; hence; using short term test is more useful to perform this task. (Bomholt et al, 2022).

        There are several problems concerning HbA1c depending as a test, with presence of certain criteria of patients’ serum turbidity, due to hyperlipidaemia, chylomicronaemia, or polycythaemia vera, which interfere definite testing, therefore; using HPLC or Fluorocytometery; may solve the problem towards good levels. (Martín-Portugués, 2019).

      The main problem that involves using fructosamine instead of HbA1c, lies beneath the fact of any disease which lead to loss of albumin in chronic conditions, is interfering with fructosamine due to lacking of proper glycation to lost protein molecules, like “Nephrotic Syndrome”; NS; failure of liver, “Acute – Inflammatory – Processes”; AIP and “Analbuminaemia”, or during pregnancy. (Venos & Koning, 2017).

          Fructosamine is reliable for individuals who have haemopathies, like thalassaemia, haemolytic anaemia, or any case that may cause lifespan for red blood corpuscles limitation; such as after using certain chemicals as drug or after toxification. (Huhtaniemi, 2018).

             People who with elevated concentration of fructosamine were more in risk in years forward to get type – II of diabetes mellitus, if that was descended from their grandparents along. (Zaccardi et al, 2020).

        By anyhow, fructosamine is combined to complications with microvascular dysfunctioning; both in suffering diabetes and non-diabetic individuals; where the more fructosamine was higher; the more cardiovascular problems; disease, congestion, stroke or even death. (Doumatey et al, 2021). While women were at higher risk in getting mortality chances by cardio vascular causes more than men, for those with high level of fructosamine and weight. (Browner et al, 2022).

References

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1- Bomholt, T., Rix, M., Almdal, T., Knop, F.K., Rosthøj, S., Heinrich, N.S., Jørgensen, M.B., Larsson, A., Hilsted, L., Feldt-Rasmussen, B. and Hornum, M., 2022. The Accuracy of Hemoglobin A1c and Fructosamine Evaluated by Long-Term Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Undergoing Hemodialysis. Blood Purification, 51(7), pp.608-616.

2- Browner, W.S., Newman, T.B., Cummings, S.R. and Grady, D.G., 2022. Designing clinical research. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

3- Huhtaniemi, I., 2018. Encyclopedia of endocrine diseases. Academic Press.

4- Lasso, G., Khan, S., Allen, S.A., Mariano, M., Florez, C., Orner, E.P., Quiroz, J.A., Quevedo, G., Massimi, A., Hegde, A. and Wirchnianski, A.S., 2022. Longitudinally monitored immune biomarkers predict the  timing of COVID-19 outcomes. PLOS Computational Biology, 18(1), p. e1009778.

5- Lee, J. Michael; Samuel P. Veres (2019-04-02). "Advanced glycation end-product cross-linking inhibits biomechanical plasticity and characteristic failure morphology of native tendon". Journal of Applied Physiology. 126 (4): 832–841.

6- Martín-Portugués, I.D.G., Hurtado, L.H., De la Cruz Vigo, J.L., Matos Azevedo, A.M., Pérez, V.Á. and Sánchez-Margallo, F.M., 2019. Effects of diet-induced early-stage obesity on a low-testosterone Gottingen Minipig. In Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Abdominal Obesity (pp. 437-448). Academic Press.

7- Venos, E. and de Koning, L., 2017. Endocrine markers of diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk. In Endocrine biomarkers (pp. 251-299). Elsevier.

8- Zaccardi, F., Jacquot, E., Cortese, V., Tyrer, F., Seidu, S., Davies, M.J. and Khunti, K., 2020. Comparative effectiveness of gliclazide modified release versus sitagliptin as second‐line treatment after metformin monotherapy in patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 22(12), pp.2417-2426.